.

Research Update Racial Integration in Urban America: A Block Level Analysis of African American and White Housing Patterns

by Lois M. Quinn and John Pawasarat, Employment and Training Institute, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, December 2002, revised January 2003. [Report is also available in PDF format]

Findings

• The segregation index appears to represent an obsolete and racially-biased approach based on a white majority view of segregation. Historically concerned with "white flight" and "racial tipping," the index ranks metropolitan areas on the degree to which the African American population is evenly dispersed, with the goal of the same white-black ratio in every census tract.(1) For the four-county Milwaukee area, census tracts that are more than 16-18 percent black are considered segregated by the index. For the Salt Lake City-Ogden metro area, which is ranked as one of the best on the segregation index and close to the "ideal," the desired goal is to have a less than 2 percent black population in each census tract.(2)

• The index is based on a one-way concept of desegregation where blacks are expected to move into white areas, but whites are not expected to move into majority black areas. Milwaukee's metro ranking on the index (82.16) is based on the "ideal" of moving 197,890 blacks of the total 240,859 black population (or 82.16%) out of their "too black" census tracts and into the remaining "whiter" tracts.(3)

• In urban areas with substantial black populations, the "ideal" of the segregation index would require most of the black population to move into neighborhoods with fewer black residents. While claiming to be race-neutral, the index has historically been used to measure progress toward the dispersal of blacks into geographic units where they would remain in the minority. Each decade, after the black population fails to move in the high percentages needed to become "evenly" dispersed (i.e., "non-segregated" under the index), the cities are declared continuingly resistant to integration.

• The segregation index can only rank two races at a time, so that diverse urban populations of Latinos, Asians, and Native Americans are not factored into the black-white segregation rankings. First, all Hispanics, regardless of stated race, are excluded. The remaining black-white racial categories reflect 19th century definitions. Any persons identified in whole or in any part as black or African American are considered "black." Only those white persons with no other racial identity are considered "white."

An alternative definition of black-white integration is presented in this paper, not as a competitive model for ranking cities and metro areas, but to expose the biases and limitations of the segregation indexes. It represents a radical departure from the white domination approach to desegregation that was introduced in the 1950s and that has persisted in the segregation index rankings. Unlike the historic segregation index, the integration measure reflects a democratic perspective that both majority white and majority black neighborhoods may be considered integrated, that is, if an 80 percent white and 20 percent black population is acceptable for a residential block, then an 80 percent black and 20 percent white population should be acceptable as well. Using this new definition of black-white integration, this study analyzed the racial compositon of 8.2 million blocks in the U.S. We find that:

• The five metro areas that the historic index ranks as "least segregated" for African Americans and whites are Albuquerque, Honolulu, El Paso, Orange County (California), and Salt Lake City-Ogden. These five metro areas have a combined population of 6.5 million, but only 48,803 residents (less than 1 percent) living on black-white integrated blocks. The bias of the historic segregation index against "too black" communities and in favor of non-black areas can be seen in the metro areas ranked as "least segregated." These metro areas fall to the bottom using the new black-white integration measure, i.e., are the least black- white integrated.

• Many of the Midwestern cities that are ranked as among the "most segregated" on the historic segregation index show average or above average rates of integration when actual counts are made of residents living on black-white integrated blocks. The Milwaukee-Waukesha metro area is ranked 98th worst out of 100 on the historic segregation index, but its percentage of population living on black-white integrated blocks ranks near the middle - 43rd highest out of the 100 largest metro areas. (See Table 2) The Cleveland- Lorain-Elyria metro area is ranked 94th worst on the historic segregation index, but its percentage of population living on black-white integrated blocks ranks at 36th highest out of 100. The Buffalo metro area is ranked 93rd worst on the historic segregation index, but has a 55th ranking of residents living on black-white integrated blocks. Cincinnati and St. Louis are also labeled among the most segregated metro areas by the segregation index, but are in the top third of metro areas with integrated populations.

• The 20 metro areas with the highest percentages of residents living on black-white integrated blocks (16 to 39 percent) are all located in the South. These were not, however, the top metro areas identified by the historic segregation index.

• When major city (rather than metro) populations are compared, the City of Milwaukee's proportion of residents living on black-white integrated blocks ranks it in the top ten out of the fifty largest cities in the U.S. (Table 1) In the City of Milwaukee one out of every five residents (21.7 percent) lives on a black-white integrated block. Integrated blocks are located on the northwest side, the west side, and the east of the river areas of the City. (Maps 1 and 2) The absence of integrated blocks in the Milwaukee area suburbs and exurban communities contributed to a lower percentage of residents (9.1 percent) living in black-white integrated blocks for the four- county Milwaukee-Waukesha metropolitan area. (Map 3)

• For maps of integrated, predominantly black, and predominantly white neighborhoods in each metropolitan area, see Density Maps of the African American and White Populations in the 100 Largest Metro Areas.

Conclusion

This block level analysis raises serious questions about the white-black dissimilarity segregation index historically used to rank metropolitan areas and its assumptions about the lack of integration occurring in many cities with large African American populations. No single statistic or set of statistics can capture the complex population mix and levels of integration and segregation in urban America, and current segregation rankings of cities and metropolitan areas - while popular in the media - appear to offer little insight into the configuration of neighborhoods in cities with large African American populations. Given housing preferences and electoral successes of African Americans in majority black neighborhoods and cities, emphasis on even dispersal of African Americans throughout each metropolitan area can hardly be considered a national goal with broad-based consensus. Further, in-migration of Latino and Asian populations has brought increasing diversity to urban neighborhoods. In this context, integration may appropriately be defined as successful mixing of diverse populations, rather than the continued dominance of neighborhoods by an urban white majority.

Much of the United States remains racially segregated, with almost a third of the African American population living on blocks that are more than 90 percent black and over half of the white population living on blocks that are more than 90 percent white. The data for Milwaukee and other metro areas clearly suggest the need for remedial efforts to combat racial discrimination and racial steering in housing; to support affirmative housing opportunities, particularly for low and moderate income African American families interested in moving into suburban areas; and to provide public and private support for integrated and diversified neighborhoods.

The implicit goal of the segregation index, that is, integrating urban America by diluting the population of black residents in individual neighborhoods, is one, however, which requires serious reexamination. This preliminary development of an alternative measure of integration - which views black and white populations as equal partners in the integrating process - is a first step toward articulating goals that may assist cities in identifying the strengths and weaknesses of their population mixes. Public policy makers are encouraged to use block level 2000 Census data to develop other tests of racial integration and to develop new measures of diversity in order to identify and address the racial challenges of the 2000s.

I. Methodology

One of the most repeated claims and damaging urban legends is that Milwaukee is the second or third most segregated city in the country. This study examines the basis for the historic statistical tool used to define "segregation" in Milwaukee and compares the national "segregation" rankings to actual counts of residents living on racially integrated blocks in each city and metropolitan area in the United States. The research identifies serious problems with the traditional segregation and "hyper-segregation" indexes and challenges statistical approaches that consider modestly integrated neighborhoods as "too black" while ranking cities with very low African American populations as "least segregated." The historic context for the segregation index is also explored, given the concern of many academic researchers in the 1960s and 1970s with neighborhood "tipping points" and racial biases of white homeowners.

In the 2000 Census, respondents were asked to check up to fifteen racial categories that each household member considered himself/herself to be, including: white; black, African American, or Negro; American Indian or Alaska Native; any of eleven groups of Asian and Pacific Islander; or "some other race." Additionally, respondents were asked whether they were Spanish/Hispanic/Latino.

While a growing number of sociologists are pouring over the 2000 census data analyzing the complex overlay of racial identity in 21st century urban America, the researchers calculating segregation indexes for the Lewis Mumford Center for Comparative Urban and Regional Research at the State University of New York at Albany and the U.S. Census Bureau used definitions that are reminiscent of the 19th century "one drop rule." Whites are defined, not as any one who told the U.S. Census they were white, but only those persons who told the census they were white and white only. Persons who reported that they were white and Native American, Asian, black or other race are considered of another race. The census bureau report states, "The reference group -- non-Hispanic Whites -- is always defined as those who report being White along, and who are not of Hispanic origin."(4) By contrast, "blacks" are persons with any part black (except, as noted, Hispanics): persons who are white and black, white and black and Native American, Asian and black, etc., that is, any mixture that includes black. Because these definitions are those used for the segregation index rankings, and for that reason alone, these racially biased definitions are also used in this analysis.

For our integration research measure the racial composition of all 8.2 million blocks in the United States was examined for the 2000 U.S. Census. Population data files were examined for individual blocks, block groups, census tracts, cities, and metropolitan areas. Blocks, rather than census tracts, were chosen as the unit of analysis since they are more sensitive to whether interaction is occurring between races. To the extent that residential closeness signals racial interaction, the block suggests a better measure than block groups or census tracts.(5) In a number of cases, the census tract (a much larger geographic unit, typically containing 2,500 to 8,000 residents) may include sizeable mixtures of black and white populations even though most blocks in the tract are not racially mixed. Blocks are considered "black-white integrated" if at least a fifth (20 percent) of their population is black and at least a fifth is white. The historic segregation index appears to have a built-in bias suggesting that integration (or non-segregation) is defined by what the majority will tolerate. Its goal of "evenness" of the white majority and black minority reflects this perspective. The integration measure used here (at least 20 percent black and at least 20 percent white on a residential block) describes a more democratic ideal that suggests that each racial group finds the other group acceptable as neighbors.

In order to eliminate blocks that appear integrated due to the presence of institutionalized populations, all U.S. blocks were identified with institutionalized residents (i.e., prison inmates; patients in nursing homes, mental hospitals or wards, hospitals or wards for chronically ill patients, and hospices).(6) Blocks where over a third of the residents are institutionalized are excluded from the count of residentially integrated populations. The percentages of city (or metropolitan) residents living on black-white integrated blocks are calculated by dividing the total population living on black-white integrated blocks by the total city (or metropolitan) population minus the excluded population living in blocks with one-third or more institutionalized persons. The findings for these analyses are then compared to the rankings historically used by academics to compare segregation in urban areas.

II. History of the Segregation Index

Much of the research work on residential segregation developed out of the University of Chicago and focused on racial changes in Chicago neighborhoods. In 1955 Otis Dudley Duncan and Beverly Duncan of the University of Chicago published an analysis of segregation indexes in the American Sociological Review, identifying strengths of various conceptual models.(7) The historic dissimilarity segregation index most commonly used today to rank metropolitan areas and cities as to their degree of segregation was popularized by Karl and Alma Taeuber of the University of Wisconsin, who prepared historic segregation rankings for U.S. cities and discussed the discriminatory practices contributing to segregation of Midwestern cities in their book Negroes in Cities, published in 1965. Segregation was defined as the lack of "even" distribution of the black population. Taeuber and Taeuber explained, "Our segregation index is an index of dissimilarity, and its underlying rationale as a measure of residential segregation is simple: Suppose that whether a person was Negro or white made no difference in his choice of residence, and that his race was not related to any other factors affecting residential location (for instance, income level). Then no neighborhood would be all-Negro or all-white, but rather each race would be represented in each neighborhood in approximately the same proportion as in the city as a whole."(8)

In the 1960s the dissimilarity index addressed two major concerns of academic researchers. First, settlement patterns of African Americans to urban areas, particularly in Chicago and other industrial cities of the Midwest, were shaped not only by the time periods in which African Americans arrived in the northern cities, but also by public and private discriminatory actions. White real estate agents, homeowners and landlords often discriminated against African Americans seeking access to housing as they migrated to the North. The federal government itself redlined in the granting of home mortgages under the Federal Housing Administration and Veterans Administration, enforced racially restrictive covenants placed on deeds in new subdivisions, funded racially segregated housing projects, and supported "urban renewal" projects that displaced low-income residents. Many municipalities prohibited public housing for returning World War II veterans and lower-income families to prevent non-white families from entering their communities. Others enacted restrictive zoning laws that limited new construction housing options for low and moderate-income families.(9) When the federal Fair Housing Act was finally passed in 1968, researchers saw the dissimilarity segregation index as a tool to measure progress toward open housing.

Much of the concern about neighborhoods in racial transition centered on the observed unwillingness of urban white residents to remain in or move into racially mixed neighborhoods. Researchers spoke of a theoretical "tipping point," which Taeuber and Taeuber described as "the percentage Negro in an area which 'exceeds the limits of the neighborhood's tolerance for inter-racial living.'"(10) (In this quotation, the term "neighborhood's tolerance" actually refers to the white residents' tolerance.(11) Along with measuring movement of African Americans into previously all-white neighborhoods, in large part the dissimilarity segregation index addressed the concerns of a white population (and mainly white academic researchers) with "tipping," by identifying the lowest possible black neighborhood population that could be achieved if blacks were spread evenly throughout the city or the entire metro area.(12) The Taeubers explained the approach: "The value of the index may be interpreted as showing the minimum percentage of non-whites who would have to change the block on which they live in order to produce an unsegregated distribution - one in which the percentage of non-whites living on each block is the same throughout the city (0 on the index). For instance, if some governing council had the power and the inclination to redistribute the population of Birmingham so as to obtain an unsegregated distribution of white and non-white residences, they would have to move 92.8 per cent of the non-whites from blocks now containing an above-average proportion of non-whites to blocks now disproportionately occupied by whites."(13) Taeuber and Taeuber calculated segregation indexes based on block data as well as on census tract data.

The segregation index has been used to rank cities and metropolitan areas regardless of their population size or the size of the black population. Rather than recognizing a range of population mixes as integrated (or non-segregated), the index seeks an even distribution of the black population in the metro area as the ideal condition. The index number itself represents the percentage of black residents who would have to move out of their present census tracts and into "whiter" tracts so that all census tracts would have an identical percentage mix of white and black populations.(14) While purporting to be race-neutral, the index has historically been used to measure progress toward the dispersal of blacks into geographic units where they would remain in the minority. (15) In Negroes in Cities, Taeuber and Taeuber reported receiving correspondence from Otis Dudley Duncan suggesting that "a more effective redistribution of the population to achieve desegregation could be made by having white and non-white households exchange residences."(16) This simple adjustment of the segregation index formula to expect that both black and white residents could be expected to move to achieve the index goal of even white-black populations in each census tract -- which was not pursued -- would create a dramatically different ranking of the metro areas on the segregation index. (In 2000, the rankings for 47 of the 100 largest metro areas would shift by 20 or more places if white residents were also expected to move for racial "evenness." Milwaukee's ranking would improve by 19 places.)(17)

When most U.S. cities were majority white, the index was typically applied to measure "evenness" of the black population within city boundaries. Once suburbanization of white residents expanded urban centers and some major cities became majority black, scholars and open housing advocates began using the index primarily for metropolitan statistical areas, as defined by the federal Office of Management and Budget. (18) Even though emphasis on dispersal of their population throughout the metropolitan area was increasingly challenged as a primary housing goal after African Americans gained political power in major U.S. cities and electoral districts, the dissimilarity segregation index continued to be used by academics as the primary measure of black-white racial trends. A number of other segregation indexes have been introduced, but none reached the popularity of the dissimilarity segregation index. It was easy to calculate, especially with the availability of computers; produced an impressively precise number; and typically generated newspaper headlines, at least for the cities ranked as most segregated.

When the dissimilarity segregation index is applied to the Milwaukee metropolitan area in 2000, its score is 82.16%, based on the "ideal" of moving 197,890 blacks of the total 240,859 African American population out of their "too black" census tracts and into the remaining "whiter" tracts. When the dissimilarity index is applied to the Hispanic population as a Latino-white index, it expects 59.5 percent of the Latino population, or 56,200 residents to move from "too Latino" neighborhoods.

Other Segregation Indexes

In the late 1980s, Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton brought renewed publicity to the segregation index by coining the term "hypersegregation," which they used to describe many metropolitan areas with the largest black populations. (19) In addition to the historic segregation index, Massey and Denton used an "isolation index" to calculate the average percentage of other blacks living in census tracts with blacks. Massey and Denton rank the percentages on a scale from 0 to 100 percent.(20) For example, in 1990 the "isolation index" ratings in Anaheim, California, and the Salt Lake City-Ogden, Utah metro areas were each 0.4 percent, indicating that on average blacks lived in census tracts that had only a 0.4 percent black population. Massey and Denton considered these the best rankings among major metropolitan areas. (21) Metro areas where blacks typically live with more than 60 percent other blacks are considered candidates for the Massey-Denton "hypersegregation" category. Under this approach, blacks are considered "isolated" when they live with a substantial majority of other blacks. They are not considered "isolated" when they live in nearly all-white census tracts.

A third measure ("absolute centralization") used by Massey and Denton reflects a racial dispersal goal that the black population should be distributed in equal distances from the central business district to the borders of the metro area, regardless of where the housing stock or populations are located in the region. (In the case of Milwaukee, this means that the black population should be spread equally from the heart of downtown to the Sheboygan, Fond du Lac, Dodge, Jefferson, Walworth, and Racine county lines.) Massey and Denton have chosen to rank metro areas where the black population is located closer to the center of the city as most "segregated" and the metro areas where the black population has more settlements in the suburban, exurban, and rural portions of the metro area as least "segregated."

None of the indexes used by Massey and Denton actually calculate the percentage of blacks living in all-black neighborhoods or the percentage of whites living in all-white neighborhoods. (22) Yet, in spite of the limitations of their methodology, in 2001 Massey went so far as to describe the metro areas they had labeled as "hypersegregated," including Milwaukee, as follows: "Blacks in these areas live within large, contiguous settlements of densely inhabited neighborhoods packed tightly around the urban core. Inhabitants typically would be unlikely to come into contact with non-Blacks in the neighborhood where they live. If they were to travel to an adjacent neighborhood, they would still be unlikely to see a White face. If they went to the next neighborhood beyond that, no Whites would be there either. People growing up in such an environment would have little direct experience with the culture, norms, and behaviors of the rest of American society, and have few social contacts with members of other racial groups." (23)

The graph below shows the actual distribution of the black population in the Milwaukee metropolitan area by residential block. Black residents live in a variety of settings -- from predominantly white neighborhoods, to majority white integrated neighborhoods, to majority black integrated neighborhoods, to predominantly black neighorhoods. In all, 5 percent of the black population (13,156 blacks) live on blocks that are 100 percent black and 33 percent live on blocks that are 90-99 percent black, while 62 percent live in largely mixed race situations. The Massey description of absolute lack of contact with non-black populations is not actually tested by his indexes and does not hold for the black population in metro Milwaukee.

Graph 1.

A new report by the U.S. Census Bureau staff uses a similar approach to rank large metro areas on their level of residential segregation (with separate rankings for African Americans; Hispanics; American Indians and Alaska Natives; and Asians, Native Hawaiians, and other Pacific Islanders).(24) Five values are measured by the Census Bureau indexes:

• No neighborhood should have a higher percentage black (of the black-white population total) than the percentage black for the metro area as a whole.

• African Americans are most "isolated" when they live in neighborhoods that are majority black and least "isolated" when they live in neighborhoods that are majority white.

• The African American population should have the same concentration per square mile in every census tract in the metro area, regardless of whether that tract is urban, suburban, exurban, rural, or largely non-residential.

• The African American population should be distributed in equal distances from the center of the metro area regardless of the location of housing or distribution of other residents.

• Black neighborhoods should not be adjacent to each other.

• The African American population should be distributed in equal distances from the center of the metro area regardless of the location of housing in the area.

• The African American population should have the same concentration persquare mile in every census tract in the metro area, regardless of whether that tract is urban, suburban, exurban, or rural. (the "delta index")

Like the Massey-Denton approach, the Census Bureau rankings have combined the anti-minority biases of the dissimilarity and isolation indexes with anti-urban indexes valuing population redistribution onto farmland and "urban sprawl" areas surrounding the central cities. The Census Bureau's "delta index" expects the black population to be evenly distributed on the land mass of each metropolitan area, regardless of land type (residential, commercial, industrial, rural) and location of existing housing. (25) For the Milwaukee metro area, this means that the black population should be limited to 165 black residents per square mile throughout the four-county region. According to the Census Bureau, 89 percent of the black population would need to move into less populated tracts to achieve the Census Bureau's new desegregation goal of equal number of blacks per square mile -- giving Milwaukee the worst "segregation" ranking in this category. Under this standard, the City of Milwaukee would be limited to 15,920 black residents (and the total City population would be limited to 99,231 residents). All the rest of the city residents would be expected to relocate onto less populated census tracts, including the many acres of farmland in Ozaukee, Washington, and Waukesha counties. (When applied to the metro Milwaukee Latino population, the Census Bureau goal would limit the Hispanic population to 58 Hispanics per square mile. The Census Bureau redistribution goal for Asians in metro Milwaukee would be 22 Asians per square mile.)

Like Denton and Massey, the Census Bureau uses the "absolute centralization index," expecting the black population to be scattered equal distance away from the population center of the metro area, ignoring the location of existing housing or any advantages of residing in city areas with existing infrastructure, mass transit, and urban amenities. Finally, reflecting the perspective that segregation is a minority problem, and not a majority problem, the Census Bureau report eliminates from its rankings of "most segregated" communities those metro areas with over one million population but with less than 20,000 blacks. (26)

The recent releases of segreation indexes based on 2000 census data demonstrate many of the limitations of continuing to use this statistical approach as the primary tool for gauging segregation in urban America. Proponents of the segregation indexes often avoid discussions of the perplexing configuration of metropolitan areas ranked as "least segregated" by omitting them from their ranking lists. For example, the Mumford Center publishes dissimilarity indexes for metropolitan areas on its website and seeks out press coverage on its rankings of cities. (27) The center reported the black-white segregation index for white it called the "top 50 metro areas," after excluding 80 metro areas with the largest total populations but with fewer African Americans. Similarly, the Hispanic-white segregation index rankings are reported only for the 50 metropolitan areas with the most Hispanic residents. If the 50 largest metro areas were used, the "least segregated" metro , areas for Hispanics and whites would be St. Louis, Pittsburgh, and Cincinnati -- all areas with less than 2 percent Latino populations. (28) The Mumford Center ranks all 331 metro areas on its black-white indexes and then provides a small note indicating that its methodology may not be valid for 226 of the areas. (29)

The perspective that "segregation" occurs when neighborhoods have "too high" a concentration of black residents and not when neighborhoods have "too high" a concentration of white residents also permeates the Mumford Center reports. In one report, the Mumford Center staff stated, for example, "Black-white segregation remains very high except in the metropolitan areas with the smallest black populations."(30)

Under this segregation index, the City of Milwaukee is reported to have a higher level of segregation (74.6 on the black- white segregation index scale) than the "suburban areas" of Milwaukee, Ozaukee, Washington and Waukesha counties. The suburbs have a 46.4 rating, described by the Mumford Center as only "a moderate level of segregation." Actually, in the so-called "moderately segregated" suburban/exurban areas, blacks make up only 1.5 percent of the population and less than 1 percent of the population lives on black-white integrated blocks.(31)

By ignoring racial integration occurring in the large urban centers and focusing on dispersal of small African American populations in suburban and exurban areas of metropolitan counties, press coverage of the historic segregation index rankings reinforces the latest anti-urban legend that the nation's predominantly white suburbs and cities with very small black populations are the most successful models for black-white integration growth in the 1990s. A recent study on black-white segregation used the index to conclude that, "The decline in segregation comes about primarily from the integration of formerly entirely white census tracts."(32) Areas that are nearly all non-black are considered "least segregated" when their small black populations are dispersed. Meanwhile, the racial integration occurring in the major cities of the Midwest is ignored - with much of it considered "segregation" under the old indexes.

III. Black-White Integration in the 50 Largest U.S. Cities

The segregation index is typically applied to metropolitan areas, yet media and public discussions regarding the rankings usually focus on the central city as the entity analyzed. Accordingly, it may be instructive to review the racial composition of blocks in the 50 largest cities, where much of focus of the index rankings has centered. For this analysis all blocks in the 50 largest U.S. cities were examined to identify black-white integrated blocks where black and white residents each comprised at least 20 percent of the block population.

• In the City of Milwaukee, 21.7 percent of residents were found to live on black-white integrated blocks (using the standard of at least 20 percent black and at least 20 percent white populations). In the city, 28 percent of black residents and 20 percent of white residents live on integrated blocks. The integrated blocks were located on the northwest side, the west side, and west of the river. (The integration with Latino, Asian and Native American populations was not studied in this report.)

• The proportion of the City of Milwaukee population living on integrated blocks ranked it in the top ten among the largest fifty cities in the United States.

• The highest degree of black-white integration was observed in the largest cities of the South.(33) In Virginia Beach, 41 percent of residents lived on black-white integrated blocks. More than a fourth of residents lived on integrated blocks in Charlotte (32 percent), Nashville-Davidson (29 percent), Jacksonville (29 percent) and Memphis (27 percent). By contrast, in Miami, where a large portion of the population is Latino, a relatively small number of blocks showed black-white integration.

• In the largest cities of the Midwest, the highest level of black-white integration was seen in the City of St. Louis, where 27 percent of residents lived on black-white integrated blocks, and Columbus, where 25 percent of residents lived on integrated blocks. The lowest degree of black-white integration was in Chicago, where only 6 percent of residents lived on black-white integrated blocks.

• In the Northeast, New York City had the largest number, but the smallest percentage, of residents living on black-white integrated blocks; only 4 percent of residents lived on black-white integrated blocks. In Philadelphia, 14 percent of residents lived on black- white integrated blocks, as did 13 percent of residents in Boston.

• Among the big cities of the West, Oakland and Sacramento had the highest levels of black-white integration, with 18-19 percent of residents living on black-white integrated blocks. By contrast, in four of the largest western cities (Tucson, San Jose, Mesa, and Albuquerque) less than 1 percent of residents lived on black-white integrated blocks.

Table 1

Ranking Black-White Integration in the 50 Largest U.S. Cities
	% of Residents
	Living on
	Black-White		City
	Integrated		Population		Total
CITY	Blocks	Rank	% Black	Rank	Population	Rank
Virginia Beach, VA	41.1%	1	19.5%	26	425,257	38
Charlotte, NC	31.9%	2	33.0%	13	540,828	26
Nashville-Davidson, TN	29.4%	3	27.3%	16	545,524	25
Jacksonville, FL	28.7%	4	29.3%	15	735,617	14
St. Louis, MO	27.2%	5	51.8%	7	348,189	49
Memphis, TN	26.6%	6	61.6%	4	650,100	18
Columbus, OH	25.1%	7	25.8%	19	711,470	15
Indianapolis, IN	24.4%	8	26.1%	17	781,870	12
Minneapolis, MN	23.3%	9	20.0%	25	382,618	45
Milwaukee, WI	21.7%	10	38.0%	10	596,974	19
Kansas City, MO	21.2%	11	32.0%	14	441,545	36
Baltimore, MD	19.8%	12	64.8%	3	651,154	17
Oakland, CA	19.5%	13	36.7%	12	399,484	41
New Orleans, LA	18.5%	14	67.3%	2	484,674	31
Sacramento, CA	18.5%	15	16.4%	27	407,018	40
Fort Worth, TX	17.3%	16	20.5%	24	534,694	27
Oklahoma City, OK	16.2%	17	16.1%	29	506,132	29
Cleveland, OH	15.9%	18	51.4%	8	478,403	33
Philadelphia, PA	14.1%	19	43.4%	9	1,517,550	5
Tulsa, OK	13.4%	20	16.3%	28	393,049	43
Omaha, NE	13.2%	21	14.0%	31	390,007	44
Boston, MA	12.6%	22	25.7%	20	589,141	20
Washington, DC	11.0%	23	60.5%	6	572,059	21
Detroit, MI	10.8%	24	82.3%	1	951,270	10
Portland, OR	10.4%	25	7.6%	41	529,121	28
Dallas, TX	10.4%	26	26.1%	18	1,188,580	8
Wichita, KS	10.2%	27	12.1%	32	344,284	50
Seattle, WA	10.1%	28	9.6%	37	563,374	23
Colorado Springs, CO	9.9%	29	7.3%	42	360,890	48
Atlanta, GA	8.8%	30	61.6%	5	416,474	39
Long Beach, CA	8.4%	31	15.4%	30	461,522	34
Denver, CO	7.2%	32	11.6%	33	554,636	24
Las Vegas, NV	7.1%	33	10.8%	35	478,434	32
Houston, TX	6.7%	34	25.4%	22	1,953,631	4
Austin, TX	6.4%	35	10.2%	36	656,562	16
Chicago, IL	5.7%	36	36.9%	11	2,896,016	3
San Diego, CA	4.8%	37	8.5%	39	1,223,400	7
New York, NY	4.1%	38	25.6%	21	8,008,278	1
San Francisco, CA	3.7%	39	8.2%	40	776,733	13
Fresno, CA	3.2%	40	8.6%	38	427,652	37
San Antonio, NM	3.2%	41	6.9%	43	1,144,646	9
Honolulu, HI	2.0%	42	2.2%	50	371,657	46
El Paso, TX	1.8%	43	3.0%	48	563,662	22
Miami, FL	1.5%	44	21.3%	23	362,470	47
Los Angeles, CA	1.4%	45	11.4%	34	3,694,820	2
Phoenix, AZ	1.3%	46	5.3%	44	1,321,045	6
Tucson, AZ	0.9%	47	4.6%	45	486,699	30
San Jose, CA	0.4%	48	3.8%	46	894,943	11
Mesa, AZ	0.4%	49	2.8%	49	396,375	42
Albuquerque, NM	0.3%	50	3.2%	47	448,607	35
50 LARGEST U.S. CITIES	9.4%		24.8%		44,559,138

IV. Black-White Integrated Blocks in the 100 Largest Metropolitan Areas

Since the 1990s most academics have used the segregation index to compare metropolitan areas, relying on the definition of metropolitan areas from the Office of Management and Budget. The OMB defines metro areas to include cities with a population of at least 50,000 (or an urbanized area with at least 100,000 people) along with the county in which the city is located and adjacent counties considered to have a "metropolitan character" based on commuting patterns, population density, and economic and social interrelationships. In New England, metropolitan areas are composed of cities and towns rather than whole counties and the urbanized population must total at least 75,000.

The metropolitan areas were used as the unit of analysis to compare the segregation index rankings to the percentages of residents living on black-white integrated blocks for the 100 largest metropolitan areas. Ranking comparisons are limited, however, by differences among metro areas throughout the U.S.

• Although described as comparable geographic units for purposes of the segregation index rankings, metropolitan areas vary widely in size and character. Among the 100 largest metro areas, the areas range from 47 square miles in the Jersey City metro area to 39,369 square miles in the Las Vegas metro area. The Tucson metro area includes one county, which is 9,186 square miles in size. The Gary metro area covers 915 square miles and two counties. The Milwaukee-Waukesha metro area comprises 1,460 square miles and four counties. The St. Louis metro area spans 6,392 square miles and includes the City of St. Louis plus 12 counties in Missouri and Illinois. The metro area of Atlanta covers 6,124 square miles and includes 20 counties.(34)

• Given their differing mixes of urban, suburban, exurban and rural populations, the density and settlement patterns of the metro areas also differ widely. The densest units are the Jersey City metro area (a portion of the New York, Northern New Jersey and Long Island consolidated metro region), with 13,044 residents per square mile and the metro area including New York City with 8,159 residents per square mile. Given their large expanse of non-urban territory, 3 metro areas in the West average less than 100 residents per square mile: the Las Vegas metro area with 40 residents/square miles, the Bakersfield metro area with 81 residents/square mile, and the Tucson metro area with 92 residents/square mile.

The percentage comparisons of black-white integration in metro areas showed different results from the percentages observed in the largest cities.

• For Milwaukee, the primary metropolitan statistical area (PMSA) is defined as the "central cities" of Milwaukee and Waukesha and the counties of Milwaukee, Waukesha, Ozaukee and Washington. In this geographical area, the population residing on black-white integrated blocks comprised 9.1 percent of the total metropolitan population. While 21.7 percent of City of Milwaukee residents lived on black-white integrated blocks, less than 1 percent of residents in the metro area outside the City of Milwaukee lived on integrated blocks.

• For a number of the major cities, their suburban metropolitan areas were far less integrated than the major city. In Indianapolis, 24 percent of the city population lived on black- white integrated blocks, but in the metro area as a whole only 11 percent of residents lived on integrated blocks. In Minneapolis, 23 percent of the city population lived on black-white integrated blocks, but in the entire Minneapolis-St. Paul metropolitan statistical area only 6 percent of residents lived on integrated blocks. Likewise, in Boston 12 percent of the city population lived on integrated blocks, but in the total metro area only 4 percent of residents lived on integrated blocks.

• Other major cities had suburban areas that were more integrated than the central city. In Washington, D.C., only 11 percent of the city population lived on integrated blocks; when the surrounding suburbs were included, that percentage rose to 20 percent. In Atlanta, 9 percent of the city population lived on integrated blocks, while 18 percent of the entire metro area population lived on integrated blocks.

Table 2 below compares the rankings on the black-white integration measure with the rankings on the historic segregation index. Many of the metropolitan areas with low percentages of residents living on black-white integrated blocks are ranked "high" on the segregation index. Likewise, many metro areas, particularly in the Midwest, with relatively higher percentages of residents living on black-white integrated blocks are ranked as highly segregated on the old index system.

• While the Milwaukee metropolitan area is highly segregated, with 38 percent of the black population living on blocks that are more than 90 percent black and 69 percent of the white population living on blocks that are more than 90 percent white, the 2000 Census data do not support ranking Milwaukee as the 3rd most segregated metro areas in the U.S. When the percentage of residents in the Milwaukee-Waukesha metropolitan area living in black-white integrated blocks (9.1 percent) is compared to other large metropolitan areas, the Milwaukee- Waukesha PMSA ranks near the middle -- 43rd out of the 100 largest metropolitan areas for residents living on black-white integrated blocks.

• Other metropolitan areas in the Midwest show different rankings when they are compared on the basis of integrated neighborhoods rather than the segregation index. Many of the Midwestern cities, including Milwaukee, Cleveland, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Indianapolis that are ranked as among the "most segregated" on the historic segregation index show average or above average rates of integration when actual counts are made of residents living on black- white integrated blocks.

• The 20 metro areas with the highest percentages of residents living on black-white integrated blocks (16 to 39 percent) are all located in the South. These were not, however, the top metro areas identified by the historic segregation index.

• The bias of the historic segregation index against "too black" communities and in favor of non-black areas can be seen in the metro areas ranked as "least segregated." With the exception of Las Vegas, the metropolitan areas ranked as "least segregated" (Albuquerque, Honolulu, El Paso, Orange County, Salt Lake City-Ogden, Tucson, San Jose, Phoenix-Mesa, and Ventura) have very low rankings on black-white residential integration and among the lowest percentages of black residents in their metro areas.

Table 2

Comparison of Black-White "Segregation Index" Rankings to Percentage of Metro Population Living on Black-White Integrated Blocks
					% of
					Population
	Black-White		Black		Living on
	Segregation		Population		Black-White
	Dissimilarity	Old	in Metro		Integrated
100 Largest Metropolitan Areas, 2000 Census	Index	Rank	Area	Rank	Blocks	Rank
Albuquerque, NM MSA	31.81	1	2.6%	95	0.3%	95
Honolulu, HI MSA	35.83	2	3.1%	91	2.9%	86
El Paso, TX MSA	36.45	3	3.0%	94	2.5%	88
Orange County, CA PMSA	36.80	4	1.8%	97	0.1%	97
Salt Lake City--Ogden, UT MSA	36.91	5	1.3%	99	0.1%	98
Tucson, AZ MSA	38.82	6	3.3%	89	0.6%	94
San Jose, CA PMSA	40.51	7	3.1%	92	0.3%	96
Las Vegas, NV--AZ MSA	43.32	8	8.5%	59	5.7%	66
Phoenix--Mesa, AZ MSA	43.72	9	3.9%	88	1.0%	93
Ventura, CA PMSA	45.52	10	2.1%	96	0.1%	99
Tacoma, WA PMSA	45.95	11	8.2%	64	13.7%	23
Raleigh--Durham--Chapel Hill, NC MSA	46.17	12	23.0%	15	23.1%	6
Norfolk--Virginia Beach--Newport News, VA--NC MSA	46.20	13	31.5%	5	38.6%	1
Riverside--San Bernardino, CA PMSA	46.28	14	8.1%	66	6.3%	62
Greenville--Spartanburg--Anderson, SC MSA	46.44	15	17.7%	29	17.8%	17
Charleston--North Charleston, SC MSA	47.42	16	31.1%	6	32.2%	3
Portland--Vancouver, OR--WA PMSA	48.07	17	3.2%	90	3.0%	85
McAllen--Edinburg--Mission, TX MSA	49.47	18	0.4%	100	0.0%	100
Seattle--Bellevue--Everett, WA PMSA	49.62	19	5.2%	86	4.1%	77
San Antonio, TX MSA	50.40	20	6.7%	75	4.4%	74
Vallejo--Fairfield--Napa, CA PMSA	50.90	21	12.5%	46	15.6%	21
Middlesex--Somerset--Hunterdon, NJ PMSA	51.97	22	8.0%	68	7.2%	56
Columbia, SC MSA	52.15	23	32.3%	3	33.5%	2
Austin--San Marcos, TX MSA	52.28	24	8.1%	65	5.4%	68
Bakersfield, CA MSA	52.28	25	6.1%	78	3.1%	84
Allentown--Bethlehem--Easton, PA MSA	53.27	26	3.1%	93	2.8%	87
Wilmington--Newark, DE--MD PMSA	53.55	27	18.2%	28	20.3%	9
Jacksonville, FL MSA	53.94	28	21.9%	18	20.9%	8
San Diego, CA MSA	54.15	29	6.2%	77	3.2%	83
Fresno, CA MSA	54.30	30	5.3%	85	1.7%	91
Oklahoma City, OK MSA	54.45	31	11.2%	50	11.2%	31
Stockton--Lodi, CA MSA	54.45	32	7.0%	72	3.4%	81
Charlotte--Gastonia--Rock Hill, NC--SC MSA	55.16	33	20.7%	20	21.5%	7
Scranton--Wilkes-Barre--Hazleton, PA MSA	55.60	34	1.6%	98	1.1%	92
Sacramento, CA PMSA	55.97	35	8.4%	62	8.4%	46
Richmond--Petersburg, VA MSA	57.04	36	30.5%	7	26.4%	4
Orlando, FL MSA	57.04	37	14.1%	39	10.1%	38
Nashville, TN MSA	57.05	38	15.9%	32	17.0%	19
Minneapolis--St. Paul, MN--WI MSA	57.83	39	6.1%	80	6.2%	64
Knoxville, TN MSA	58.05	40	6.1%	81	5.0%	72
Wichita, KS MSA	58.21	41	8.4%	61	6.8%	61
Tulsa, OK MSA	58.52	42	9.4%	56	7.6%	49
Providence--Fall River--Warwick, RI--MA MSA	58.69	43	4.3%	87	3.5%	80
Greensboro--Winston-Salem--High Point, NC MSA	59.01	44	20.4%	22	18.9%	13
Dallas, TX PMSA	59.36	45	15.3%	33	10.5%	37
Fort Worth--Arlington, TX PMSA	60.33	46	11.4%	49	11.8%	27
San Francisco, CA PMSA	60.87	47	5.7%	84	1.9%	90
Albany--Schenectady--Troy, NY MSA	60.91	48	6.4%	76	7.4%	54
Little Rock--North Little Rock, AR MSA	61.27	49	22.2%	17	20.2%	10
Denver, CO PMSA	61.76	50	5.9%	83	5.1%	71
Fort Lauderdale, FL PMSA	62.25	51	21.5%	19	16.2%	20
Oakland, CA PMSA	62.81	52	13.4%	40	8.7%	45
Columbus, OH MSA	63.10	53	14.2%	38	13.6%	25
Washington, DC--MD--VA--WV PMSA	63.12	54	26.7%	12	20.2%	11
Ann Arbor, MI PMSA	63.24	55	7.9%	69	10.7%	35
Monmouth--Ocean, NJ PMSA	63.35	56	5.9%	82	5.4%	69
Mobile, AL MSA	63.73	57	27.5%	11	17.7%	18
Springfield, MA MSA	64.13	58	6.8%	74	6.0%	65
Tampa--St. Petersburg--Clearwater, FL MSA	64.47	59	10.4%	53	7.8%	47
Louisville, KY--IN MSA	64.49	60	14.3%	37	11.3%	29
Omaha, NE--IA MSA	64.69	61	8.8%	57	7.8%	48
Hartford, CT MSA	65.05	62	9.7%	55	7.0%	58
Atlanta, GA MSA	65.61	63	29.2%	9	18.4%	14
Boston, MA--NH PMSA	65.68	64	7.3%	71	4.4%	75
Jersey City, NJ PMSA	65.69	65	12.8%	45	3.8%	79
Akron, OH PMSA	65.85	66	11.5%	48	10.8%	34
Rochester, NY MSA	66.32	67	10.6%	52	9.1%	42
West Palm Beach--Boca Raton, FL MSA	66.68	68	14.5%	35	9.7%	40
Baton Rouge, LA MSA	66.93	69	32.1%	4	17.9%	16
Sarasota--Bradenton, FL MSA	67.15	70	6.1%	79	4.3%	76
Grand Rapids--Muskegon--Holland, MI MSA	67.18	71	7.7%	70	6.9%	59
Pittsburgh, PA MSA	67.27	72	8.5%	60	7.6%	50
Houston, TX PMSA	67.49	73	17.6%	30	7.6%	51
Los Angeles--Long Beach, CA PMSA	67.55	74	10.0%	54	2.5%	89
Baltimore, MD PMSA	67.93	75	27.9%	10	19.0%	12
Memphis, TN--AR--MS MSA	68.72	76	43.6%	1	23.5%	5
New Haven--Meriden, CT PMSA	68.97	77	13.4%	42	11.4%	28
Toledo, OH MSA	69.10	78	13.3%	43	11.3%	30
Kansas City, MO--KS MSA	69.12	79	13.2%	44	10.1%	39
New Orleans, LA MSA	69.25	80	37.7%	2	18.3%	15
Syracuse, NY MSA	69.26	81	7.0%	73	6.9%	60
Dayton--Springfield, OH MSA	70.16	82	14.8%	34	9.4%	41
Harrisburg--Lebanon--Carlisle, PA MSA	70.62	83	8.2%	63	7.5%	52
Indianapolis, IN MSA	70.66	84	14.4%	36	13.7%	24
Philadelphia, PA--NJ PMSA	72.33	85	20.4%	21	11.1%	32
Youngstown--Warren, OH MSA	72.85	86	10.6%	51	8.8%	44
Birmingham, AL MSA	72.92	87	30.2%	8	14.8%	22
Bergen--Passaic, NJ PMSA	73.24	88	8.1%	67	3.4%	82
Miami, FL PMSA	73.57	89	19.9%	23	3.9%	78
St. Louis, MO--IL MSA	74.35	90	18.7%	27	13.2%	26
Nassau--Suffolk, NY PMSA	74.38	91	8.7%	58	5.3%	70
Cincinnati, OH--KY--IN PMSA	74.84	92	13.4%	41	10.9%	33
Buffalo--Niagara Falls, NY MSA	76.74	93	12.0%	47	7.3%	55
Cleveland--Lorain--Elyria, OH PMSA	77.32	94	18.9%	26	10.6%	36
Newark, NJ PMSA	80.42	95	22.5%	16	7.5%	53
Chicago, IL PMSA	80.85	96	19.0%	25	6.3%	63
New York, NY PMSA	81.82	97	23.8%	13	4.7%	73
Milwaukee--Waukesha, WI PMSA	82.16	98	16.0%	31	9.1%	43
Gary, IN PMSA	84.14	99	19.8%	24	5.7%	67
Detroit, MI PMSA	84.72	100	23.4%	14	7.1%	57

V. Distribution of the Black and White Populations in the 100 Largest Metropolitan Areas

No single statistic or set of statistics can capture the complex population mix and levels of integration and segregation in urban America, and communities are encouraged to use block level census data to understand the mixes of their neighborhoods. Current rankings of cities and metropolitan areas appear to offer little insight into the configuration of neighborhoods in cities with large African American populations. In addition to defining and identifying integrated blocks, it is critical to locate areas where less racial mixing is taking place.

Table 3 below shows the breakdown of the black population by those living on black-white integrated blocks as well as those living on blocks that are predominantly black (here defined as more than 80 percent black). Additionally, percentages are shown of the black population living on blocks where blacks make up less than 20 percent of the population and whites comprise over 50 percent of the total population. A remaining "other mixture" category shows the population on blocks where blacks typically reside with Latino or Asian populations as well as whites.

• In the 100 largest metro areas of the U.S., nearly a fourth (23.4 percent) of blacks lived on black-white integrated blocks. Another 13.6 percent lived on majority white (over 50 percent) blocks where they constituted less than a fifth of the block population.

• The black population living on blocks with a predominantly (over 80 percent) black population made up 41.3 percent of the total black population in the largest metro areas. Finally, 21.7 percent of blacks lived on a remaining category of "other mixture" populations where blacks reside with Latino or Asian populations as well as whites in a variety of combinations.

Similarly, Table 4 below shows the breakdown of the white population by those living on black-white integrated blocks as well as those living on blocks that are predominantly white (here defined as more than 80 percent white), majority black and less than a fifth white, and the remaining blocks with other mixtures.

• When the distribution of the white population is analyzed for the 100 largest metro areas in the U.S., 6.5 percent live on black-white integrated blocks. A small proportion (0.6 percent) live on majority black (over 50 percent) blocks where they constituted less than a fifth of the block population.

• The white population living with a predominantly (over 80 percent) white population made up 66.4 percent of the total white population in the largest metro areas. Finally, 26.5 percent of whites lived on a remaining category of "other mixture" populations where whites reside with Latino or Asian populations as well as blacks in a variety of combinations.

The tables showing percentages of black and white residents living together help demonstrate the limitations of a two-race analysis. In many metro areas, Latino and Asian populations make up a sizeable proportion of the total population and individuals may identify themselves as members of more than one racial/ethnic group. The smaller the total black population or larger the "other mixture" populations, the fewer residents who will likely live on predominantly black blocks.

Table 3

Racial Composition of Blocks Occupied by Black Residents
		% of Black Population Living on Blocks That Are:
	Black	>=20% Black+	<20% Black+		Other
Metropolitan Area	Population	>=20% White	>50% White	>80% Black	Mixture
MIDWEST
Akron, OH PMSA	80,180	38.7%	21.7%	36.1%	3.5%
Ann Arbor, MI PMSA	45,704	51.7%	31.6%	13.5%	3.3%
Chicago, IL PMSA	1,575,173	12.6%	7.0%	68.5%	11.9%
Cincinnati, OH--KY--IN PMSA	220,034	37.1%	14.2%	46.6%	2.1%
Cleveland--Lorain--Elyria, OH PMSA	425,722	24.0%	10.4%	62.3%	3.3%
Columbus, OH MSA	218,565	40.3%	21.5%	31.5%	6.6%
Dayton--Springfield, OH MSA	141,038	30.0%	18.5%	48.8%	2.8%
Detroit, MI PMSA	1,037,674	14.1%	6.6%	75.2%	4.1%
Gary, IN PMSA	125,093	12.2%	5.2%	68.3%	14.3%
Grand Rapids--Muskegon--Holland, MI MSA	84,193	36.0%	26.3%	23.2%	14.5%
Indianapolis, IN MSA	230,843	39.5%	13.5%	39.3%	7.7%
Kansas City, MO--KS MSA	235,277	31.4%	18.3%	43.7%	6.5%
Milwaukee--Waukesha, WI PMSA	240,859	27.0%	7.7%	52.3%	13.0%
Minneapolis--St. Paul, MN--WI MSA	180,006	37.1%	37.2%	4.1%	21.7%
Omaha, NE--IA MSA	63,134	38.7%	26.4%	24.8%	10.1%
St. Louis, MO--IL MSA	486,602	31.5%	10.6%	55.2%	2.7%
Toledo, OH MSA	82,304	36.0%	17.5%	40.2%	6.3%
Wichita, KS MSA	45,776	27.6%	32.4%	30.1%	9.9%
Youngstown--Warren, OH MSA	63,221	39.6%	17.6%	33.5%	9.3%
NORTHEAST
Albany--Schenectady--Troy, NY MSA	56,092	43.9%	35.1%	10.2%	10.8%
Allentown--Bethlehem--Easton, PA MSA	19,526	26.9%	52.3%	0.8%	20.1%
Bergen--Passaic, NJ PMSA	110,763	13.4%	16.3%	19.0%	51.3%
Boston, MA--NH PMSA	247,684	20.2%	27.9%	21.2%	30.7%
Buffalo--Niagara Falls, NY MSA	140,496	25.9%	15.3%	50.8%	8.0%
Harrisburg--Lebanon--Carlisle, PA MSA	51,579	37.1%	21.4%	20.7%	20.9%
Hartford, CT MSA	114,378	25.6%	26.2%	22.1%	26.1%
Jersey City, NJ PMSA	77,941	8.7%	5.9%	36.8%	48.6%
Middlesex--Somerset--Hunterdon, NJ PMSA	93,639	28.5%	30.2%	4.2%	37.1%
Monmouth--Ocean, NJ PMSA	66,698	31.9%	30.0%	17.6%	20.5%
Nassau--Suffolk, NY PMSA	238,293	21.8%	16.0%	21.9%	40.2%
New Haven--Meriden, CT PMSA	72,419	31.8%	17.0%	22.8%	28.4%
New York, NY PMSA	2,217,680	7.3%	4.6%	40.3%	47.9%
Newark, NJ PMSA	457,825	12.8%	6.4%	58.2%	22.6%
Philadelphia, PA--NJ PMSA	1,040,144	22.0%	11.7%	53.3%	13.1%
Pittsburgh, PA MSA	200,229	37.0%	22.5%	38.5%	2.0%
Providence--Fall River--Warwick, RI--MA MSA	51,012	23.9%	40.4%	0.5%	35.2%
Rochester, NY MSA	116,235	34.0%	23.6%	19.5%	22.9%
Scranton--Wilkes-Barre--Hazleton, PA MSA	9,817	26.5%	70.4%	0.5%	2.7%
Springfield, MA MSA	40,349	28.6%	26.9%	6.5%	38.0%
Syracuse, NY MSA	50,995	38.7%	27.5%	20.2%	13.7%
SOUTH
Atlanta, GA MSA	1,202,260	25.8%	10.9%	53.0%	10.3%
Austin--San Marcos, TX MSA	101,518	20.1%	28.8%	4.9%	46.2%
Baltimore, MD PMSA	712,002	28.1%	10.5%	57.1%	4.3%
Baton Rouge, LA MSA	193,449	26.3%	7.4%	63.2%	3.1%
Birmingham, AL MSA	278,254	23.1%	6.1%	68.3%	2.4%
Charleston--North Charleston, SC MSA	170,564	44.0%	11.3%	41.7%	3.0%
Charlotte--Gastonia--Rock Hill, NC--SC MSA	310,821	39.4%	14.1%	34.9%	11.6%
Columbia, SC MSA	173,380	45.5%	7.6%	43.0%	3.9%
Dallas, TX PMSA	537,789	24.8%	17.2%	28.6%	29.4%
El Paso, TX MSA	20,085	23.6%	4.6%	0.1%	71.7%
Fort Lauderdale, FL PMSA	349,610	26.8%	14.1%	39.7%	19.4%
Fort Worth--Arlington, TX PMSA	194,002	34.0%	22.7%	19.1%	24.2%
Greensboro--Winston-Salem--High Point, NC MSA	255,112	36.7%	14.2%	38.0%	11.0%
Greenville--Spartanburg--Anderson, SC MSA	170,249	41.0%	18.0%	37.6%	3.5%
Houston, TX PMSA	734,732	14.0%	10.2%	32.1%	43.7%
Jacksonville, FL MSA	241,161	38.0%	17.1%	41.5%	3.4%
Knoxville, TN MSA	41,582	32.7%	36.3%	29.4%	1.5%
Little Rock--North Little Rock, AR MSA	129,554	39.8%	12.4%	41.8%	5.9%
Louisville, KY--IN MSA	147,162	30.2%	19.9%	47.0%	2.9%
McAllen--Edinburg--Mission, TX MSA	2,085	1.2%	4.1%	0.5%	94.2%
Memphis, TN--AR--MS MSA	494,641	26.1%	5.2%	64.1%	4.6%
Miami, FL PMSA	448,173	7.0%	1.7%	49.3%	42.0%
Mobile, AL MSA	148,754	26.9%	8.4%	62.4%	2.2%
Nashville, TN MSA	196,127	38.1%	20.9%	37.8%	3.3%
New Orleans, LA MSA	503,720	21.9%	5.4%	66.0%	6.6%
Norfolk--Virginia Beach--Newport News, VA--NC MSA	493,863	47.7%	10.3%	37.3%	4.7%
Oklahoma City, OK MSA	121,420	36.1%	27.5%	27.5%	8.9%
Orlando, FL MSA	232,243	27.6%	21.1%	28.9%	22.4%
Raleigh--Durham--Chapel Hill, NC MSA	273,724	38.7%	17.1%	30.8%	13.5%
Richmond--Petersburg, VA MSA	303,953	37.3%	11.2%	45.8%	5.7%
San Antonio, TX MSA	106,747	19.0%	19.4%	4.3%	57.3%
Sarasota--Bradenton, FL MSA	36,186	25.2%	24.4%	30.2%	20.1%
Tampa--St. Petersburg--Clearwater, FL MSA	248,058	29.2%	23.0%	32.5%	15.3%
Tulsa, OK MSA	75,471	28.0%	28.7%	36.0%	7.4%
Washington, DC--MD--VA--WV PMSA	1,312,419	28.2%	12.3%	43.3%	16.3%
West Palm Beach--Boca Raton, FL MSA	163,774	24.1%	16.8%	42.1%	17.0%
Wilmington--Newark, DE--MD PMSA	106,463	41.9%	18.8%	28.0%	11.3%
WEST
Albuquerque, NM MSA	18,544	3.4%	42.6%	0.2%	53.8%
Bakersfield, CA MSA	40,606	16.0%	29.3%	1.2%	53.5%
Denver, CO PMSA	124,352	28.1%	34.8%	5.0%	32.0%
Fresno, CA MSA	48,597	9.2%	18.5%	2.7%	69.6%
Honolulu, HI MSA	27,134	23.4%	22.0%	0.0%	54.6%
Las Vegas, NV--AZ MSA	133,244	19.0%	43.9%	7.7%	29.3%
Los Angeles--Long Beach, CA PMSA	950,765	7.8%	8.8%	13.7%	69.7%
Oakland, CA PMSA	319,836	21.7%	12.1%	9.1%	57.1%
Orange County, CA PMSA	51,080	1.4%	44.7%	0.0%	53.9%
Phoenix--Mesa, AZ MSA	127,227	6.8%	49.6%	1.4%	42.2%
Portland--Vancouver, OR--WA PMSA	61,373	34.8%	54.7%	1.7%	8.8%
Riverside--San Bernardino, CA PMSA	263,591	22.1%	21.3%	0.7%	55.9%
Sacramento, CA PMSA	136,246	28.8%	30.9%	0.4%	39.9%
Salt Lake City--Ogden, UT MSA	17,717	2.5%	78.8%	0.2%	18.4%
San Diego, CA MSA	174,418	13.9%	30.6%	0.7%	54.8%
San Francisco, CA PMSA	99,199	10.2%	20.9%	5.4%	63.5%
San Jose, CA PMSA	51,590	2.7%	26.8%	0.1%	70.5%
Seattle--Bellevue--Everett, WA PMSA	124,410	25.6%	52.6%	0.5%	21.3%
Stockton--Lodi, CA MSA	39,684	13.5%	21.8%	0.2%	64.6%
Tacoma, WA PMSA	57,374	47.2%	45.0%	0.2%	7.6%
Tucson, AZ MSA	27,876	4.6%	60.4%	0.2%	34.7%
Vallejo--Fairfield--Napa, CA PMSA	64,897	36.5%	22.6%	2.7%	38.2%
Ventura, CA PMSA	16,055	1.4%	49.8%	0.1%	48.7%

Table 4

Racial Composition of Blocks Occupied by White Residents
		% of White Population Living on Blocks That Are:
	White	>=20% White+	<20% White+		Other
Metropolitan Area	Population	>=20% Black	>50% Black	>80% White	Mixture
MIDWEST
Akron, OH PMSA	593,445	6.8%	0.4%	89.3%	3.5%
Ann Arbor, MI PMSA	484,391	6.8%	0.1%	79.4%	13.8%
Chicago, IL PMSA	4,798,533	4.8%	0.7%	64.2%	30.3%
Cincinnati, OH--KY--IN PMSA	1,375,267	6.6%	0.5%	90.0%	2.9%
Cleveland--Lorain--Elyria, OH PMSA	1,697,660	6.8%	0.6%	85.6%	7.0%
Columbus, OH MSA	1,238,296	8.7%	0.6%	82.1%	8.6%
Dayton--Springfield, OH MSA	776,050	5.8%	0.6%	87.8%	5.9%
Detroit, MI PMSA	3,096,900	4.5%	1.1%	85.0%	9.4%
Gary, IN PMSA	428,791	3.6%	0.9%	81.0%	14.5%
Grand Rapids--Muskegon--Holland, MI MSA	903,766	4.1%	0.2%	84.0%	11.7%
Indianapolis, IN MSA	1,299,311	8.6%	0.6%	85.6%	5.2%
Kansas City, MO--KS MSA	1,391,492	6.3%	0.4%	83.3%	10.0%
Milwaukee--Waukesha, WI PMSA	1,116,150	5.3%	0.8%	85.2%	8.7%
Minneapolis--St. Paul, MN--WI MSA	2,514,494	3.3%	0.2%	85.9%	10.6%
Omaha, NE--IA MSA	593,902	4.5%	0.3%	83.2%	12.0%
St. Louis, MO--IL MSA	2,014,776	8.6%	0.7%	86.1%	4.6%
Toledo, OH MSA	495,070	6.8%	0.6%	83.6%	9.0%
Wichita, KS MSA	430,553	4.4%	0.2%	75.2%	20.2%
Youngstown--Warren, OH MSA	513,967	5.0%	0.5%	91.9%	2.6%
NORTHEAST
Albany--Schenectady--Troy, NY MSA	771,049	4.2%	0.2%	89.2%	6.4%
Allentown--Bethlehem--Easton, PA MSA	552,429	1.7%	0.0%	87.0%	11.3%
Bergen--Passaic, NJ PMSA	890,640	2.1%	0.3%	60.7%	36.9%
Boston, MA--NH PMSA	2,726,018	2.4%	0.2%	80.5%	16.9%
Buffalo--Niagara Falls, NY MSA	965,233	4.1%	0.5%	90.2%	5.2%
Harrisburg--Lebanon--Carlisle, PA MSA	544,078	4.4%	0.4%	89.6%	5.6%
Hartford, CT MSA	915,287	4.0%	0.2%	82.0%	13.8%
Jersey City, NJ PMSA	215,216	3.5%	0.7%	18.5%	77.3%
Middlesex--Somerset--Hunterdon, NJ PMSA	797,594	4.5%	0.1%	61.2%	34.2%
Monmouth--Ocean, NJ PMSA	955,076	3.0%	0.2%	86.1%	10.7%
Nassau--Suffolk, NY PMSA	2,105,352	2.8%	0.4%	80.0%	16.8%
New Haven--Meriden, CT PMSA	395,573	6.8%	0.6%	77.3%	15.3%
New York, NY PMSA	3,684,669	4.4%	1.7%	48.4%	45.5%
Newark, NJ PMSA	1,196,664	5.3%	1.2%	70.0%	23.5%
Philadelphia, PA--NJ PMSA	3,583,090	7.4%	0.7%	80.8%	11.1%
Pittsburgh, PA MSA	2,100,501	4.8%	0.2%	92.5%	2.5%
Providence--Fall River--Warwick, RI--MA MSA	990,722	1.9%	0.0%	86.7%	11.5%
Rochester, NY MSA	902,811	5.1%	0.5%	87.4%	7.1%
Scranton--Wilkes-Barre--Hazleton, PA MSA	600,830	0.7%	0.0%	97.6%	1.7%
Springfield, MA MSA	459,511	3.4%	0.2%	81.4%	15.0%
Syracuse, NY MSA	644,035	3.9%	0.3%	91.1%	4.7%
SOUTH
Atlanta, GA MSA	2,460,740	14.1%	1.6%	66.8%	17.5%
Austin--San Marcos, TX MSA	758,302	3.3%	0.1%	46.6%	50.0%
Baltimore, MD PMSA	1,692,851	14.4%	1.3%	73.8%	10.5%
Baton Rouge, LA MSA	385,099	13.5%	1.5%	78.3%	6.7%
Birmingham, AL MSA	611,574	10.9%	1.4%	83.1%	4.6%
Charleston--North Charleston, SC MSA	351,434	26.0%	1.4%	61.1%	11.5%
Charlotte--Gastonia--Rock Hill, NC--SC MSA	1,067,594	15.7%	0.7%	74.0%	9.6%
Columbia, SC MSA	337,574	26.4%	1.3%	65.9%	6.4%
Dallas, TX PMSA	1,979,218	7.8%	0.6%	50.3%	41.3%
El Paso, TX MSA	115,535	6.2%	0.0%	1.7%	92.1%
Fort Lauderdale, FL PMSA	941,674	11.1%	1.3%	43.5%	44.1%
Fort Worth--Arlington, TX PMSA	1,116,886	7.9%	0.4%	59.5%	32.2%
Greensboro--Winston-Salem--High Point, NC MSA	905,018	13.1%	0.8%	77.4%	8.7%
Greenville--Spartanburg--Anderson, SC MSA	747,540	12.3%	0.6%	80.2%	6.9%
Houston, TX PMSA	1,923,990	6.1%	1.0%	45.3%	47.6%
Jacksonville, FL MSA	775,279	14.7%	0.6%	66.8%	17.9%
Knoxville, TN MSA	623,048	3.2%	0.1%	93.5%	3.2%
Little Rock--North Little Rock, AR MSA	429,131	14.0%	1.1%	78.0%	6.9%
Louisville, KY--IN MSA	840,677	7.6%	0.4%	86.9%	5.1%
McAllen--Edinburg--Mission, TX MSA	59,423	0.0%	0.0%	21.8%	78.2%
Memphis, TN--AR--MS MSA	588,808	20.8%	2.7%	69.2%	7.3%
Miami, FL PMSA	465,772	6.0%	3.3%	6.4%	84.3%
Mobile, AL MSA	370,631	13.7%	1.0%	80.0%	5.3%
Nashville, TN MSA	960,118	11.8%	0.5%	79.5%	8.2%
New Orleans, LA MSA	731,514	15.1%	2.3%	68.4%	14.2%
Norfolk--Virginia Beach--Newport News, VA--NC MSA	959,404	32.4%	1.3%	52.1%	14.2%
Oklahoma City, OK MSA	789,780	7.5%	0.3%	62.3%	29.9%
Orlando, FL MSA	1,070,460	6.4%	0.5%	53.0%	40.1%
Raleigh--Durham--Chapel Hill, NC MSA	793,714	17.7%	0.9%	63.1%	18.3%
Richmond--Petersburg, VA MSA	637,800	20.6%	1.5%	68.7%	9.2%
San Antonio, TX MSA	627,176	4.0%	0.2%	23.4%	72.4%
Sarasota--Bradenton, FL MSA	505,267	2.2%	0.2%	90.4%	7.2%
Tampa--St. Petersburg--Clearwater, FL MSA	1,821,955	4.5%	0.4%	73.6%	21.6%
Tulsa, OK MSA	593,498	4.7%	0.3%	61.0%	34.0%
Washington, DC--MD--VA--WV PMSA	2,762,241	16.2%	1.5%	48.6%	33.7%
West Palm Beach--Boca Raton, FL MSA	798,484	6.1%	0.5%	69.4%	24.0%
Wilmington--Newark, DE--MD PMSA	433,306	14.4%	0.6%	74.2%	10.9%
WEST
Albuquerque, NM MSA	340,286	0.3%	0.0%	19.6%	80.1%
Bakersfield, CA MSA	327,190	2.5%	0.0%	39.6%	57.9%
Denver, CO PMSA	1,484,343	3.2%	0.2%	61.9%	34.7%
Fresno, CA MSA	374,913	1.3%	0.0%	25.6%	73.1%
Honolulu, HI MSA	175,633	6.9%	0.0%	1.4%	91.7%
Las Vegas, NV--AZ MSA	986,463	3.8%	0.1%	38.3%	57.8%
Los Angeles--Long Beach, CA PMSA	2,959,614	2.8%	0.4%	23.7%	73.1%
Oakland, CA PMSA	1,140,504	6.4%	0.8%	27.7%	65.1%
Orange County, CA PMSA	1,458,978	0.1%	0.0%	33.3%	66.6%
Phoenix--Mesa, AZ MSA	2,140,171	0.6%	0.0%	57.7%	41.7%
Portland--Vancouver, OR--WA PMSA	1,564,685	1.7%	0.0%	74.2%	24.1%
Riverside--San Bernardino, CA PMSA	1,541,053	4.5%	0.1%	25.8%	69.6%
Sacramento, CA PMSA	1,046,616	4.8%	0.1%	50.6%	44.5%
Salt Lake City--Ogden, UT MSA	1,104,467	0.1%	0.0%	77.0%	22.9%
San Diego, CA MSA	1,548,833	2.1%	0.1%	40.2%	57.6%
San Francisco, CA PMSA	885,518	1.5%	0.1%	36.9%	61.5%
San Jose, CA PMSA	744,282	0.3%	0.0%	19.1%	80.6%
Seattle--Bellevue--Everett, WA PMSA	1,841,254	2.3%	0.1%	62.8%	34.8%
Stockton--Lodi, CA MSA	267,002	2.3%	0.0%	22.2%	75.5%
Tacoma, WA PMSA	532,934	8.8%	0.0%	63.0%	28.2%
Tucson, AZ MSA	518,720	0.5%	0.0%	44.7%	54.9%
Vallejo--Fairfield--Napa, CA PMSA	280,214	10.2%	0.3%	28.9%	60.6%
Ventura, CA PMSA	427,449	0.1%	0.0%	45.0%	54.9%